Competence in Foreign Language Writing: Progress and Lacunae

Stephen Krashen
Sy-Ying Lee
Literacy Across Cultures (in press)

In this paper, we examine some of the factors that contribute to success in foreing language writing. Although our emphasis is on the composing process, the strategies good writers use to discover meaning and "stay on course" while they write, we must, of necessity, first review the role of reading in developing writing compentence. We turn next to the role of actual writing, and the development of the composing process.

How reading contributes to writing

Reading provides writers with knowledge of the language of writing, the grammar, vocabulary, and discourse style writers use. This "Reading Hypothesis" is consistent both with general theory and with the research. It is a corollary of the more general Comprehension Hypothesis (a.k.a. the Input Hypothesis, Krashen, 1982, 2003a), the hypothesis that we acquire language in only one way, when we understand messages. It is also consistent with a number of studies in both first language and second language development showing that those who read more acquire more of the written language. This is the consistent result of correlational studies (EFL studies include Gradman and Hanania, 1991; Y-O Lee, Krashen, and Gribbons, 1996; S-Y Lee and Krashen, 1996: S-Y Lee, 2001), studies of free reading in school (e.g. Elley and Mangubhai, 1985; Elley, 1991; Mason and Krashen, 1997), as well as case histories (Krashen, 1993, 2003a).

Different writing styles have different linguistic characteristics, but there is also considerable overlap among styles (Biber, 1986): So-called narrative style has, for example, some, but not all of the characteristics of formal, expository prose. Thus, reading anything at all will help all writing, to at least some extent. Smith (1988), however, is undoubtedly right when he advises: "To learn to write for newspapers, you must read newspapers; textbooks about them will not suffice. For magazines, browse through magazines rather than through correspondence courses on magazine writing ...To write poetry, read it ...."

How writing contributes to writing

There is no evidence that writing contributes to writing competence; those who write more do not write better and increasing writing does not result in better writing (Krashen, 1984, 1994). Writing, however, makes a different kind of contribution: Writing can make you smarter. When we write something down on the page, we make a representation of our thoughts, of our "cognitive structures." Once on the page, the brain finds it irresistible to come up with a better version of our cognitive structures. Improving our cognitive structures is real learning (using "learning" in the general sense, not as contrasted with "acquisition"). Writing is not the only way of doing this, of course, but it is a very effective way.

The insight that writing makes you smarter is shared by many observers. Elbow (1975), for example, concluded that meaning is not what you start out with in writing, but what you end up with. Boice (1994) noted that inspiration is the result of writing, not the cause. In addition, there is empirical evidence supporting this assertion, experiments showing that writing can aid in thinking and problem-solving (Krashen, 2003) as well as positive correlations between eminence and amount written among professional writers and thinkers (Simonton, 1984).

The composing process

One of the great triumphs of the language arts profession has been the description of the "composing process," strategies writers use to solve problems and make themselves smarter. Studies have shown that good writers utilize several strategies: