a Cloze test of English as a second language. Similarly, Oller, Baca, and Vigil (1977) found that Mexican-Americans who viewed themselves as "logical, sensitive, shy" also tended to do better on a Cloze test of ESL. As discussed above, this factor probably relates more to learning than to acquisition.³

Researchers have also attempted to relate field independence and field dependence to second language proficiency, with some degree of success. The field-independent person is better able to perceive parts of a field as distinct from the ground. This ability is thought to be associated with a more analytic ("left-brained") cognitive style. The field-dependent person perceives all parts of the organized field as a total experience (Naimon et al.). Field dependence is also associated with the empathic and open personality. There may be a relationship between field independence and second language proficiency in older students; this is supported by Naimon et al. for grade 12. It does not appear to relate to proficiency in younger students, however (grades 7 to 11; Naimon et al., 1977; Bialystok and Frohlich, 1977). Seliger's "high-input generators" (Seliger, 1977), college level ESL students in the US who interacted more in the classroom, tended to be more field independent. Also, Tucker, Hamayan, and Genesee (1976) reported some relationship between field independence and performance on an overall test of French in grade 7, but did not find any relationship with other, more "Monitor-free" tests. The relationship between field independence with older performers (see discussion of child-adult differences below), and with more monitored testes, and the suggested "analytic" cognitive style, implies a relationship between field independence and learning. H. D. Brown (1977) makes just this suggestion, noting that field dependents will tend to be acquirers; "With his empathy and social outreach (the field dependent person) will be a more effective and motivated communicator" (p. 350).

Attitude, Aptitude, and Child-Adult Differences

Monitor Theory, and its proposed interrelationships with aptitude and attitude, allows a clearer picture of the cause of child-adult differences in second language attainment. I have suggested elsewhere (Krashen, 1975a) that the source of the Monitor is formal operations,

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