Sentences, Paired Associates, and Spelling Clues) related to several "school-type" tests of French as a foreign language (reading, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation accuracy, and phonetic discrimination). Gardner and Lambert (1959) presented evidence that "school French achievement", represented by grades in French as well as overall grades, is strongly related to performance on the Words in Sentences subtest of the MLAT, "suggesting that the student who is aware of grammatical distinctions in English will do well in French courses where the emphasis is on grammar" (p. 290). Gardner and Lambert also found a "linguistic reasoning factor": scores on the MLAT related to achievement in reading French, a French grammar test, and a test of phonetic discrimination. While these studies were carried out in Canadian English-speaking situations (Montreal), Gardner and Lambert's subsequent research in the United States (Gardner and Lambert, 1972) confirms these findings.

Gardner, Smythe, Clement, and Gliksman (1976) also confirmed that aptitude related much more to classroom skills (grades) than to communicative skills (speech) in French as a foreign language in grades 7 to 11 in various English-speaking communities in Canada. The effects of aptitude on performance in general was stronger for older students, a finding we shall return to later.

Also of interest is Bialystok and Fröhlich (1977), who studied ninth- and tenth-graders studying French in Toronto. In one or two schools examined, aptitude correlated with self-reports of conscious monitoring (r = 0.55).

Finally, recall that Carroll defined aptitude as rate of learning, that is, students with higher aptitude will appear to learn faster than students with lower aptitude. This predicts that aptitude will show its strongest effects in a short, well-taught course (Carroll, 1963). Note in this regard that conscious learning may provide a short-cut to performance in a second language. As mentioned elsewhere (Krashen, 1978b; Krashen, 1977a), "learners" can use an acquisition-free mode of performance consisting of first language surface structure plus the Monitor. High-aptitude students should be more likely to be able to utilize this mode and thus may show more rapid initial progress. Over the long term, however, subconscious language acquisition is far superior, as the user of L1 surface structure plus the Monitor is

25