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and teacher may also be manifestations of self-confidence and/or integrative motivation, and for this reason may also relate to acquisition. In addition, we would expect students with such attitudes to apply themselves more, resulting in more learning.
In addition, students who have an analytic orientation should do better in conscious language learning. Subjects who report themselves as more "analytic" or who show test behavior reflecting and analytic cognitive style (e.g. field independent) should do better in conscious learning, and might show a better attitude toward a more analytically oriented classroom, resulting in more acquisition (see above). 3
Empirical Studies of Aptitude and Attitude
If aspects of aptitude relate directly to conscious language learning, while attitudinal factors generally relate to subconscious language acquisition, certain predictions should hold true. Below we examine these predictions and the supporting evidence.
Prediction no. 1. Attitude and aptitude will be statistically independent, as they relate to very different and independent parts of the language performance and internalization model. Of course, this is a well-established result. Carroll (1963) reported that aptitude is not related to whether or not a person "likes foreign language study" (p. 115), and Gardner and Lambert have confirmed and replicated this result using standard aptitude tests and measures of integrative motivation many times (Gardner, 1960; Gardner and Lambert, 1959, 1972).
Prediction no. 2. The aptitude factor will show a strong relationship to second language proficiency in "monitored" test situations and when conscious learning has been stressed in the classroom. Several studies support this. First, the validity of aptitude tests is usually determined by correlating scores with grades in foreign language classes and/or with pencil and paper grammar tests (Pimsleur, 1966; Carroll, 1963). Such correlations are occasionally, but not always, quite high. Similarly, Gardner (1960) concludes that "language aptitude appears to be of major importance in the acquisition of second language skills acquired through instruction" (p. 214). In his study, three subtests of Carroll's Psi-Lambda aptitude test (Words in
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